Informative Essay- Mother and Daughter Relationship

A mother-daughter relationship is very crucial in a girl’s life. It is widely known that if a girl doesn’t have her mother to turn to for everything, she will most likely turn to her friends. The â€Å"mother and daughter† bond should be the closest bond a girl can have. No friend should measure up to the closeness you share with your mother. It is sometimes very difficult for this to happen for many different reasons. In many cases, the mother will feel like her daughter doesn’t understand because she is young. Likewise, the daughter might feel like she can’t tell her mother certain things because she will not understand where she is coming from, since she is much older. That is one big issue that most relationships between a mother and†¦show more content†¦The daughter will listen to the mother and accept her guidance more if the mother develops good listening skills. The action of â€Å"active listening† must be taken plac e during a conversation between the two. This involves not only listening with your ears, but with your eyes and heart to hear one another’s feelings about what it is they are telling you about. It is very important for a mother and a daughter to put each other in one another’s shoes. There may be many circumstances thatShow MoreRelatedCinderella Themes835 Words   |  4 PagesIn the essay, â€Å"The Rise of Perrault’s Cinderella†, by Bonnie Cullen, and the â€Å"Cinderella: Not So Morally Superior†, by Elisabeth Panttaja both Illustrates similar ideas of the Cinderella fairy tale. In â€Å"The Rise of Perrault’s Cinderella†, Cullen touches base of the many different Cinderella themes throughout different countries. Panttaja alternatively addresses the backstory of the Cinderella theme in â€Å"Cinderella: Not So Morally Superior†. Although Cullen and Panttaja have similarities between theirRead MoreAmy Tan s Relationship With Her Mother928 Words   |  4 Pagesfamily escaped China on the last boat before the Communist takeover of China in 1949. Her mother left behind three other kids from a previous marriage. Amy finished high school in Switzerland, and fought with her mom the whole time. She went to college at a Baptist college. She then defied her mother by leaving that college and following her boyfriend to San Jose State University. She further defied her mother by abandoning her pre-medical degree for an English and linguistics major. She eventuallyRead MoreThe Myth Of The Latin Woman Summary1445 Words   |  6 Pagesfirst-generation immigrants from Puerto Rico, try to guide her and give her advice, but ultimately the difference in cultures could not be reconciled. What was acceptable and expected in Puerto Rico was not the same as in America, and it showed. Cofer’s mother, when giving Cofer clothing advice, did not realize how different American girls dressed compared to the Puerto Ri can girls. The bright lipstick and more revealing clothes that Cofer was encouraged to wear on a day to day basis were not commonplaceRead MoreHorace Miners Body Ritual Among The.2053 Words   |  9 Pageswas a very entertaining essay. The essay made made fun of American culture without directly stating the name of the culture, other than including the word American spelled backwards. Miner bring to the reader’s attention the odd rituals practiced in America that the normal citizen would not find strange at all. However, by presenting his essay in this form he shows how strange American customs are from the view of someone in a different country. Miner begins his essay by describing the AmericanRead MoreHorace Miners Body Ritual Among The.2053 Words   |  9 Pagesa very entertaining essay. The essay made made fun of American culture without directly stating the name of the culture, other than including the word American spelled backwards. Miner bring to the readers attention the odd rituals practiced in America that the normal citizen would not find strange at all. However, by presenting his essay in the this form he shows how strange American customs are from the view of someone in a different country. Miner begins his essay by describing the AmericanRead MoreDescriptive Analysis6093 Words   |  25 PagesDescriptive Analyses of the Essays and Short Stories Narration and Description THE STRATEGIES Although the narrative and descriptive essays are often given as separate assignments in composition courses, they are combined in this first section so that teachers can present expressive writing and still reserve time for the many forms of informative and argumentative writing. This choice is tricky because it confirms the folk wisdom about expressive writing and rhetorical difficulty. According toRead MoreRecent Changes in British Society and Greater Diversity of Family Types1379 Words   |  6 Pagesand most popularly families who have step relations. I intend to research and discuss these different types of family, and the factors and changes in British society, which have influenced them, to provide a well-researched and informative essay. Willmott and Young have studied family life in London for over twenty years. They believe that the family has changed over four stages. I have researched the four stages so I can see changes in society such as industrialisationRead MoreCalculus Oaper13589 Words   |  55 Pageshttp://www.terry.uga.edu/~dawndba/4500compulsoryhet.htm Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence †¨ Adrienne Rich    Adrienne Rich s essay constitutes a powerful challenge to some of our least examined sexual assumptions. Rich turns all the familiar arguments on their heads: If the first erotic bond is to the mother, she asks, could not the natural sexual orientation of both men and women be toward women? Rich s radical questioning has been a major intellectual forceRead MoreKate Bechdel s Fun Home Essay2365 Words   |  10 Pagesinteresting manner; combined, it provides emotional and informative layers to the novel. Bechdel starts to especially question binaries and pushes the boundaries of what it means to be a female and male in a relatively patriarchal society with no middle ground around the rules; as the novel shows, this affects not only Bechdel’s own pursuit towards her identity but has a significant, and ultimately fatal, impact on her father, Bruce. In the following essay, I shall be exploring the representation of identityRead MoreEssay on An Analysis of Shakespeares The Tempest3488 Words   |  14 Pagespoint of view of the main character, Prospero. This has a definite impact on the interpretations and their validity. According to Stephen Greenblatt the preoccupation with political power was not unfamiliar to Shakespeare and his audience. In his essay, The Best Way to Kill Our Literary Inheritance Is to Turn It Into a Decorous Celebration of the New World Order, Greenblatt argues that recognizing the presence of issues such as colonialism and slavery in The Tempest will deepen the pleasure of

Loss Of Government Revenue From Tobacco Taxes - 791 Words

1) Loss of government revenue Another problem caused by these policies is the loss of government revenue from tobacco taxes. According to a September 2013 report by the International Tax and Investment Center and Oxford Economics (ITIC-OE), In 2011, the Legal Domestic Sales of cigarettes fell by 80.6%, from 308 million cigarettes in 2010, to just 60 million cigarettes a year after the tax increase. Total Consumption (legal and illicit) is estimated at 317.9 million cigarettes in 2013, down 9.5% from 2012. However, only 2.4% or 7.7 million cigarettes constitute Legal Cigarettes Consumption. In 2013, excise tax loss as a percentage of potential total excise tax revenues is estimated to be 99.6% (US$ 62 million) a rise from 93.4% in 2012, the highest amongst the 14 Asia countries surveyed. Actual revenues from excise duties fell from US$ 21,627906 in 2010 to US$ 233,000 in 2013. However, the Thailand-based Southeast Asia Tobacco market control Alliance (SEATCA) in a report released in June 2014 said figures from the 2013 report of the International Tax and Investments Centre and Oxford Economics (ITIC/OE) in September 2013 â€Å"grossly overestimated† its numbers and was based on flawed research methodologies. SEATCA had also pointed out that the ITIC-OE report was funded by Phillip Morris International. Regardless of the numbers, there is consensus that there is a causation effect of the drastic tax hike which prompts Brunei’s legal cigarette sales to plummet to almost none,Show MoreRelatedHow The Cigarette Industry Affects Society With Disease And Reduces Social Economic Welfare1142 Words   |  5 Pagesthought to far outweigh any economic benefits that the industry yields (Guhl Hughes n.d). To combat this, governments implement indirect taxes with the aim of reducing the number of smokers. Evidence shows that this has been the most effect ive means of reducing demand for cigarettes (Cotter, Dunclop Perez 2011). In the context of the competitive model, this essay will explain how taxes on cigarettes reduce demand, including discussion of the short-term and long-term price elasticity of demandRead MoreThe Health Benefits Of Tobacco1366 Words   |  6 Pagesis actually a delicate balance. One of the key contributors to the balance of the economy is tobacco. Tobacco has played a role in global economic ties since the discovery of the Americas. Instantly popularized across the world, it has become a staple crop for many countries. Recently, however, political leaders have been murmuring of making tobacco illegal due to its health effects. The legality of tobacco is essential because it has several health benefits, employs countless workers, and contributesRead MoreTobacco And Its Effects On The United States1061 Words   |  5 PagesTobacco is the number one cause of preventable death in the United States. According t o the American Lung Association in 2009, 20.6% of adults were current smokers. In 1970, the United States banned television and radio advertisements of cigarettes. Across the world countries battle similar issues in how to help prevent deaths, lower healthcare costs, and educate the population. Countries have banned advertising, posted health causes, renamed brands, and even included informational fliers inRead MorePrice Elasticity and Indirect Taxes - Eco Hl (Ib)670 Words   |  3 PagesEconomics HL- IB Price elasticity and indirect taxes Q. Using at least one diagram, explain why knowledge of price elasticity of demand is necessary for a government when they are considering increasing indirect taxes on certain products. (16th May 2011, Economics- Paper 2(HL), Time Zone 2) The government needs to understand price elasticity of demand when setting the price of the commodities and services it provides for the community (like public transport price). It also needs to be ableRead MoreBan The Tobacco Industry From Advertising812 Words   |  4 Pagesban the tobacco industry from advertising. These countries decided it was ethically in their best interest to establish these laws in attempts to curtail the youth from smoking, and to slow down the growing health crisis. Protecting the well-being of their citizens was their responsibility; that was the rationale that were explained to these citizens. Arguments have been made on each side of the spectrum if these bans are viable to the stated purpose. India is very popular for tobacco productionRead MoreThe Ban On Tobacco Advertisements977 Words   |  4 Pageswhich need ethical and commercial considerations. The ban on tobacco advertisements in India is no exception as India is a country which preserves i ts ethics but at the same time wants to develop. Those in favour of the ban supported it as follows; As to discourage adolescents from taking up smoking; since the advertising agents put up slick and colorful adverts which make smoking to be deemed as cool by the youths, so the government and some human rights watch dogs will try to protect the youngstersRead MoreWhat Is The Introduction Of Gst1226 Words   |  5 Pagesfor levy and collection of various taxes. Different types of indirect taxes are levied and collected at different point in the supply chain. The Centre and the states are empowered to levy respective taxes as per the constitution of India. The Value Added Tax (VAT) when introduced was considered. In 2000, the Vajpayee Government started discussion on GST by setting up an empowered committee. The committee was headed by Asim Dasgupta, Finance Minister in Government of West Bengal. But an announcementRead MoreBan On Tobacco By The Government Of India1078 Words   |  5 PagesBAN ON TOBACCO BY THE GOVERMENT OF INDIA INTRODUCTION According to Brown Williamson Tobacco Corporation â€Å"From an ethical standpoint, it would be wrong to try to cause people to take the risk of smoking. But even beyond the moral issue, for a product such as cigarettes well known to have serious health risks, it would be difficult even to understand how an advertising campaign could be devised to convince people to smoke. India s tobacco problem is very complex; the quote above depicts how ethicallyRead MoreExpenditures And Revenues Matrix And Summary1010 Words   |  5 PagesExpenditures and Revenues Matrix and Summary Introduction Lynch and Smith, 2004 state that, a budget is a design for the achievement of programs linked to purposes and goals within a certain time period, comprising an approximation of assets required, together with an estimation of the resources obtainable, usually associated with one or more past eras and showing future requirements. State and local administrations is truly big commerce. Patton, Allison, Shoulders, Freeman and Smith, Jr., 2011Read MoreFinancial Analysis Essay764 Words   |  4 Pagescould have been increased by 28%. Falling Revenues from Major Operating Segments: Revenue excluding duty, excise and various taxes, was  £10,768 million during 2004 and has declined to  £9,325 million in 2005, however, again rose to  £9,762,  £10,018 and  £12,122 million in 2006, 2007 and 2008 respectively. In 2004, among 5 operating regions 3 has declined in revenues. America has a fall of 35.6%, Latin America 2.5% and Asia-Pacific by 4.6%. Falling of revenues has caused due to illicit trade, declining

Chefs Linguistics and Language Free Essays

There are as many different styles and variations of spoken language as there are people on Earth as language is an abundant ocean of creativity that will never dry up. The inventions of modern day technology such as the TV have meant that English spoken language is as varied now as it has ever been; you only have to flick through the TV channels to discover the differences in the language a news reporter uses, compared to that of a chat show host. This also applies to different people talking about the same subject; this can be illustrated in the study of Jamie Oliver’s and Gordon Ramsay’s unique adaptations of spoken language to suit the audience and purpose of their different cooking shows. We will write a custom essay sample on Chefs: Linguistics and Language or any similar topic only for you Order Now Oliver has a very relaxed and informal apdo TV chefs adapt and change their language to suit their audience and purpose? How to cite Chefs: Linguistics and Language, Papers

Sexuality in Wiseblood Essay Example For Students

Sexuality in Wiseblood Essay That Heinous Beast: SexualityIn the novel Wiseblood, by Flannery OConnor, one finds an unpleasant, almost antagonistic view of sexuality. The author seems to regard sex as an evil, and harps on this theme throughout the novel. Each sexual incident which occurs in the novel is tainted with grotesquem. Different levels of the darker side of sexuality are exposed, from perversion to flagrant displays of nudity. It serves to give the novel a bit of a moralistic overtone. The Carnival Episode illustrated Hazels first experience with sexuality. The author depicts an incident surrounded by an aura of sinfulness. Indeed, the shows promoter claims that it is SINsational. In his anxiousness to view the sideshow, Haze resorted to lying about his age. He was that eager to see it. When he enters the tent, Haze observes the body of an obese naked woman squirming in a casket lined with black cloth. He leaves the scene quickly. This first bout with sexuality was certainly a grotesque one, and one which, perhaps, helped fortify his resolve not to experiment with sex for years to come. Haze reacted to the incident on different levels. Before watching the show, he was filled with curiosity. So badly he wanted to view this EXclusive show. After glancing at the body, he first thought that it was a skinned animal. When he realized what it was, he at once left the tent, ashamed, and perhaps frightened of the object before his eyes. Hazels reaction was not unnatural. The sight with which he was confronted would invoke both fear and embarassment within most ten-year-olds. Not only was the body nude, but it was inside a casket as well. The author parallels this vulgar display of sexuality with death itself. But Hazel reacted to more than just the sight of the object. He at once realizes that he was not supposed to watch the naked lady, that it was sinful to do so. He feels ashamed for having gone inside the tent, and punishes himself. Here, it is evident that the author means to show that Sexuality is a sinful creature. This moral tone is reinforced by the behavior of his parents during the episode. Whilst inside the tent, Hazel hears his father remark appreciatively about the nude body: Had one of themther built into ever casket, be a heap ready to go sooner. After returning home, Hazels mother realizes that her son has experienced something that he should not have, and confronts him about it. Though he does not admit what he has done, he proceeds to punish himself. It is inferred that Hazel respects his mothers attitude toward the matter. OConnor seems to propose that Hazel must do penance for what he has done, or, on a larger scale, for witnessing vulgar displays of sexuality. Perversion reaches its height when OConnor introduces the reader to Enoch Emery. During Enochs various dealings with women, one witnesses vulgarity in all its forms. The events surrounding the first of these incidents is tinged with a bit of mystery. OConnor paints the portrait of a Peeping Tom, an adolescent Enoch Emery watching a topless woman sunbathe while hidden in between abelia bushes. Strangely enough, the woman has a long and cadaverous face, with a bandage-like bathing cap. Ironically, the woman also has pointed teeth, with greenish-yellow hair. The woman is portrayed as a corpse-like figure who is surprisingly similar to Hazels one-time mistress, Leora Watts. Sexuality comes in the form of a corpse, an allusion not to be missed. The narrator depicts Sexuality as being analogous to spiritual death. In this episode, however, one sees more than just the grotesque. Enoch Emery introduces us to the grimmer side of sexuality, a side in which a predator spies on an unknowing woman, and gains pleasure from it. The meaning behind the scene is somewhat masked by the lascivious behavior of a typical eighteen year old, but its aim is clear. Here is sexuality at its darker side: one in which women are violated unbeknownst to them. Enochs other dealings with women are also on the perverse side. He enjoys making suggestive remarks towards them. The fact that they do not respond to him results from two

A Modest Proposal A Different Version Essays -

A Modest Proposal: A Different Version I am among the 850 people that attend Jesuit Prep. Each day at Jesuit Prep, we attend 8 grueling classes with 45 minutes of monotonous teaching about many subjects. Within each classroom, all the beady eyes of each student stare off into either space or the hanging clock on the opposite wall. As the 45 minutes tick away and the teacher rambles about a subject, the second and minute hand on the clock seem to slow down, then stop their rotational turns. While the clock appears to stop, often our heads droop down, at where we are sitting, till they reach a comfortable position upon our arms which we have placed across our desks. Once this repetitive classroom sequence of events happens, as is often the case within Jesuit Prep, we are swept away to our own mental classroom of deep sleep. This deep sleep is a common occurrence at Jesuit Prep. Yet, every time the teachers bore us to sleep, our future is hurt by our loss of vital information to help us continue through High School College. As humbly as I may, I propose to solve this problem and help the students of Jesuit Prep enjoy these classrooms of boredom. This proposal, deeply thought out to solve the common problem of students sleeping and hurting their future lives and careers is to place table top dancers in every classroom. I have worked out the details entailing the added cost of these daily dancing ladies. A well-known friend of mine, who owns a nightclub off of Harry Hines, was kind enough to divulge the rates per hour that dancers, he could find for Jesuit Prep, would accept. The amount I was told is $5.00 per hour, ensured that this was a very generous deal by my friend. This meager hourly wage, times the 7 hours of school, times the 30 classrooms, and times the 180 class days of school equals approximately $200.00 added towards each student's tuition. Each student's tuition, currently at around $5,600 would be raised barely less than 4% to $5,800 per year. As you can see, the statistics have been thoroughly thought out, the next question is where to place these table-top dancers. Each classroom currently has at least one main desk towards the front of the classroom. Each day the desks are barely touched by teachers and people, as most teachers use portfolios or briefcases to carry their as nments and papers with themselves. The desks, therefore being unused, could serve as ample room for the dancers to take their position and dance throughout the period. As the administration and teachers understand the positive impact this creates in the learning curve, further enhancements may be made to include a metal pole, that can serve to aid the dancers, installed at the front corner of each room. A famous European friend of mine has implemented this method of teaching into his courses, with the metal poles, and continually praises this idea as an excellent way to transfer his daily information to his students. . This proposal, thought out in every respect, will influence more than just the students. Each dancer, by working all day, 5 days a week, is supplied with a steady job and is kept in the labor force earning a honest living. The dancers are also able to pick up spending money as cash is slipped to them by students during class, assuming the child has been paying attention to the lesson and the teacher allows it. The teachers will have their students awake and attentive during the period for lessons and information by offering private dances with the dancers if certain students behave correctly. As the students learn more information, based upon this rewarding classroom atmosphere, parents may become more confident in their child's college search process because of their improved grades. As the improved grades are returned, no doubt that the school pride and appreciation will increase as well. Everyone's self-esteem will rise, and support for other programs will grow. Although with all of these advantages, there are always people who can critique any well thought and laid out proposal. Myself, I can only think of 2 questions, which only the extremely judgmental person may come up in response to such a grand plan at solving such a problem. Firstly, that the cost of these table top dancers may seem rather steep. My only retort to that comment is that there is always a price for improving education, especially at this level and grand

Understanding Environmental Problems through Poetry

Understanding Environmental Problems through Poetry Environmental issues are burning ones in modernity; however, they are not new for the 20th and 21st centuries, since they were raised much earlier, at the outbreak of the Industrial Revolution. It is also true that the environmental problems have been frequently raised in poetry – the works of Wordsworth, Bishop, and Yeats may serve as evidence for this fact. All these authors have repeatedly raised the issues connected with the pace of progress and its impact on the surrounding nature, and have devoted some lyrics to these questions.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Understanding Environmental Problems through Poetry specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More One of the remarkable pieces of poetry dedicated to the impact of man on nature is Sonnet; the poet voices his regrets about the Industrial Revolution and its effect on the connection between people and nature. He stresses the fact that with the emergence of machin es people have lost their unity with nature they used to have before: â€Å"Little we see in Nature that is ours† (Wordsworth 3). This is the reason for which the author disapproves of the progress and longs back to the time when no pollution, plants, manufacture, and industry existed, and wants to become a wild pagan on the untouched Earth: â€Å"Id rather be/A Pagan suckled in a creed outworn† (Wordsworth 9-10). The topic of regretting the progress and missing the genuine nature are also visible in the work of Yeats called The Lake Isle of Innisfree written at the end of the 19th century. The beginning of the poem takes the reader to the beautiful, untouched world of charming nature. All the author wants to have is a hut â€Å"of clay and wattles made† (Yeats 2), and â€Å"a hive for the honeybee† (Yeats 3). The dream of the poet is to â€Å"live alone in the bee-loud glade† (Yeats 4). The pictures that the poet draws with the following lines of the verse are romantic, attractive, and naturally charming for all people who know what natural, simple beauty is. However, the author then shows the setting of his dreams, thus juxtaposing his dream and the surrounding reality: â€Å"I hear the water lapping with low sounds by the shore/ While I stand on the roadway, or on the pavements gray† (Yeats 10-11) The motives of nature are also present in the verse titled The Fish by Elizabeth Bishop, and the author’s intent is to show both the dominance of people over the nature, and the respect they should have towards it. First of all, she shows that the way fish live is much better because of the pollution people have created â€Å"his gills were breathing in/the terrible oxygen† (Bishop 22-23). By these words the author shows that her habitat is worse than the fish’s is, but still she is the winner in the race as she has caught the fish that is in her power. Only seeing that the fish is an old fighter, and he has got into her hands only because he is tired of fighting, she provides an artistic comparison of the fish to people. She compares the hooks in the fish’s lip with the medals of an old soldier, and gives a metaphor of an old, wise man with a beard:Advertising Looking for essay on literature languages? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Like medals with their ribbons frayed and wavering, a five-haired beard of wisdom trailing from his aching jaw (Bishop 61-64) Thus, as one can see from the present works, there is much on the issue of environment and nature in poetry; the poets have been not only worshipping the beauty of nature in their verses, but have managed to show how tragic the disconnection of people with nature is, and how drastic the role of industrial development is in this process. Poets show themselves as tied to the modernity, but longing back to the untouched, virgin nature that is lost foreve r for contemporary material and technologically advanced people. Their nostalgia about the foregone times of unity with nature serves as a good guide for people forgetting about the nature, its place in human lives, and its truly dominant position compared to mechanics and human impact. Therefore, such readings and analysis may deepen the human understanding of what environment is, and what it should be for us – not only the subject of preservation, but of admiration, attention, and appeal in its genuine simplicity and charm.

1.Why did Berkeley assert that the existence (esse) of the objects of Coursework

1.Why did Berkeley assert that the existence (esse) of the objects of knowledge consists in their being perceived (percipi) - Coursework Example Thus, an object cannot exist without being perceived. The act of perceiving on the other hand is the product of mind or spirit. It is the mind and spirit that generates ideas and perceive them. Since spirit perceives ideas, it is referred to as understanding. According to Berkeley, it is the understanding that results to the existence of matter. Therefore, what people consider as matter is only the idea that is generated from the sensory perception of physical characteristics of an object. Additionally, one can also deduce that Berkeley asserted that the existence of the objects of knowledge consists in their being perceived because ‘existence’ â€Å"consists of the state of actively perceiving or of passively being perceived† (Berkeley 5). According to him, if something lacks the ability to perceive or it cannot be perceived, then there is no need of claiming that it exists. Thus, Berkeley asserted that the existence of the objects of knowledge consists in their being perceived because he believed in any idea on what objects entail being the product of mind and

Israeli-palestinian conflict Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Israeli-palestinian conflict - Essay Example This movement spread in many spheres of Jewish life such as culture, religion, secularism, politics, labor and revisionism. The spread of this kind of nationalism came to the world as a surprised and shock the foundations of several other religious forces such as Islam and Christianity which considered Israelis to be a thing of the past. The arrival of the Zionist forces in the mainstream politics and religion gave way to businessmen especially in the field of agriculture and farming (Beinin & Stein 2006). This was the start of the Jewish settlement in their ancient regions or what they called their homeland. Israeli-Palestinian conflict has its roots both in politics and in religion. Ever since the war of 1948, the Israelis have outnumbered the Palestinians in Jerusalem leading to an intrusion of the Zionists in the Palestinian politics which caused a severe damage to the established structure. Both Palestinian Muslims and Christians were affected by this invasion which came to them as a shock. It is Zionism which is keeping the Israelis to fight for their entire life. One wonders whether the Israeli Zionism had taken an extremist approach towards attaining the land or had the opposing force, that is, the Palestinian Nationalist Movement become ineffective (Caplan 2010). The places of exile were perfect for the Israeli’s to settle. Babylon and Egypt are regions full of resources and riches. But it was religion which drove the Jews towards the Holy Land of Jerusalem. It goes without saying that the means adopted by the Israeli forces to date are highly illegal although the Arab neighboring nations are not reciprocating the way they should be doing politically (Dowty 2004). Unfortunately countless number of people are killed ruthlessly every passing day. Many billions have already died in the past but the issue of Palestine remains until the followers of all the main religions, Judaism, Christianity and Islam come together to put some sense into each othe r. It is also observed that when the solutions are presented for the conflict between the two nations there is a one sided image portrayed greatly depending upon the opinions of the UN, British, American or Israeli government. The conflict worsened as the Israeli forces pushed them next to the Arab state so that it could meet a larger end. The agreement to join hands with the opposing party meant a great deal of chaos. This was however overlooked because Israel’s demand for the partition depended upon the initial behavior of the Palestinians when they first offered some joint endeavor. The above mentioned issues still remain among the two nations. Palestinians were conveniently swept away from politics especially those who had a business approach to politics. Since the regions of occupation are of interest for all the three religions there is no reason why the people should be callously treated. With the end of World War II there were more than sixty thousand Jews who entered the land and started taking over the farmers and Bedouins who induced fear among the Jews for causing disturbance in the hierarchy the Muslims (ProCon.org 2004). Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Jordan came to the rescue of Palestine. The war of 1948 was fought bravely and with complexity. Israel must recognize one critical point that whatever maybe the solution of these problems, any decade long period of war can bring peace in one of the

Hot Melt Extrusion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Hot Melt Extrusion - Essay Example HME technique does not require time consuming drying step and compressing step; and therefore, the processing steps are significantly reduced. Due to fewer unit operations involved in HME operation, production time is greatly enhanced. During the HME process, the polymer-melt itself act as a thermal binder. HME eliminates problems arising from poorly compactible materials. An extruded rod obtained from HME procedure can be directly incorporated into tablets after cutting. Uniform dispersion of fine particles is obtained due to vigorous mixing and agitation conditions of HME operation. The energy requirements in HME process are low as compared to high shear granulation. The HME process requires lower investment for equipment as against other processes. HME technique also provides new strategies to increase dissolution rates for sparingly water soluble drugs, enhance bioavailability of the active ingredient, improve content uniformity of dosage formulation, modify drug release, and als o helps to mask the unpleasant taste of the drug (Repka et al. 1043; Crowley et al. 909). A single- or twin-screw extruders are used for HME process. The extruder is composed of a feeding hopper, barrels, single or twin screws, die, screw-driving unit, heating/cooling device for the barrels, conveyer belt to cool down the product, and solvent delivery pump. The monitoring devices on the equipment include temperature gauges, a screw-speed controller, an extrusion torque monitor and pressure gauges. During the HME process, first a dry powder blend of drug, polymer, and other adjuvants/additives is prepared. Then, this soild mixture is fed into the feeding section of the extruder. The material is transferred to the melting section. The heat is applied to the material in the melting section to form the polymer-melt. This molten mass is transferred in the metering section which is then

Data Anonymization in Cloud Computing

Data Anonymization in Cloud Computing Data Anonymization Approach For Privacy  Preserving In Cloud Saranya M Abstract—Private data such as electronic health records  and banking transactions must be shared within the cloud  environment to analysis or mine data for research purposes. Data privacy is one of the most concerned issues in big data  applications, because processing large-scale sensitive data sets  often requires computation power provided by public cloud  services. A technique called Data Anonymization, the privacy  of an individual can be preserved while aggregate information  is shared for mining purposes. Data Anonymization is a  concept of hiding sensitive data items of the data owner. A  bottom-up generalization for transforming more specific data  to less specific but semantically consistent data for privacy  protection. The idea is to explore the data generalization from  data mining to hide detailed data, rather than discovering the  patterns. When the data is masked, data mining techniques  can be applied without modification. Keywords—Data Anonymization; Cloud; Bottom Up Generalization; Mapreduce; Privacy Preservation. I. INTRODUCTION Cloud Computing refers to configuring, manipulating,  and accessing the applications through online. It provides  online data storage, infrastructure and application.which is  a disruptive trend which poses a significant impact on  current IT industry and research communities [1]. Cloud  computing provides massive storage capacity computation  power and by utilizing a large number of commodity  computers together. It enable users to deploy applications  with low cost, without high investment in infrastructure. Due to privacy and security problem, numerous potential  customers are still hesitant to take advantage of cloud  [7].However, Cloud computing reduce costs through  optimization and increased operating and economic  efficiencies and enhance collaboration, agility, and scale, by  enabling a global computing model over the Internet  infrastructure. However, without proper security and  privacy solutions for clouds, this potentially cloud  computing paradigm could become a huge failure. Cloud delivery models are classified into three. They are  software as a service (saas), platform as a service (paas)  and infrastructure as a service (iaas). Saas is very similar to  the old thin-client model of software provision, clients  where usually web browsers, provides the point of access  to running software on servers.Paas provides a platform on  which software can be developed and deployed. Iaas is  comprised of highly automated and scalable computer  resources, complemented by cloud storage and network  capability which can be metered ,self-provisioned and  available on-demand[7]. Cloud is deployed using some models which include  public, private and hybrid clouds. A public cloud is one in  which the services and infrastructure are provided off-site  over the Internet. A private cloud is one in which the  services and infrastructure are maintained on a private  network. Those clouds offer a great level of security. A  hybrid cloud includes a variety of public and private  options with multiple providers. Big data environments require clusters of servers to  support the tools that process the large volumes of data,  with high velocity and with varied formats of big data. Clouds are deployed on pools of server, networking  resources , storage and can scale up or down as needed for  convenience. Cloud computing provides a cost-effective way for  supporting big data techniques and advanced applications  that drives business value. Big data analytics is a set of  advanced technologies designed to work with large  volumes of data. It uses different quantitative methods like  computational mathematics, machine learning, robotics,  neural networks and artificial intelligence to explore the  data in cloud. In cloud infrastructure to analyze big data makes sense  because Investments in big data analysis can be significant  and drive a need for efficient and cost-effective  infrastructure, Big data combines internal and external  sources as well as Data services that are needed to extract  value from big data[17]. To address the scalability problem for large scale data set  used a widely adopted parallel data processing framework  like Map Reduce. In first phase, the original datasets are  partitioned into group of smaller datasets. Now those  datasets are anonymized in parallel producing intermediate  results. In second phase, the obtained intermediate results  are integrated into one and further anonymized to achieve  consistent k-anonymous dataset. Mapreduce is a model for programming and Implementing  for processing and generating large data items. A map  function that processes a key-value pair,This generates a  set of intermediate key-value pair. A reduce function which  merges all intermediate data values associated with those  intermediate key. II. RELATED WORK Ke Wang, Philip S. Yu , Sourav Chakraborty adapts an  bottom-up generalization approach which works iteratively  to generalize the data. These generalized data is useful for  classification.But it is difficult to link to other sources. A  hierarchical structure of generalizations specifies the  generalization space.Identifying the best generalization is  the key to climb up the hierarchy at each iteration[2]. Benjamin c. M. Fung, ke wang discuss that privacy preserving  technology is used to solve some problems  only,But it is important to identify the nontechnical  difficulties and overcome faced by decision makers when  deploying a privacy-preserving technology. Their  concerns include the degradation of data quality, increased  costs , increased complexity and loss of valuable  information. They think that cross-disciplinary research is  the key to remove these problems and urge scientists in the  privacy protection field to conduct cross-disciplinary  research with social scientists in sociology, psychology,  and public policy studies[3]. Jiuyong Li,Jixue Liu , Muzammil Baig , Raymond Chi-Wing Wong proposed two classification-aware data  anonymization methods .It combines local value  suppression and global attribute generalization. The  attribute generalization is found by the data distribution,  instead of privacy requirement. Generalization levels are  optimized by normalizing mutual information for  preserving classification capability[17]. Xiaokui Xiao Yufei Tao present a technique,called  anatomy, for publishing sensitive datasets. Anatomy is the  process of releasing all the quasi-identifier and sensitive  data items directly in two separate tables. This approach  protect the privacy and capture large amount of correlation  in microdata by Combining with a grouping mechanism. A linear-time algorithm for computing anatomized tables  that obey the l-diversity privacy requirement is developed  which minimizes the error of reconstructing microdata  [13]. III. PROBLEM ANALYSIS The centralized Top Down Specialization (TDS)  approaches exploits the data structure to improve  scalability and efficiency by indexing anonymous data  records. But overheads may be incurred by maintaining  linkage structure and updating the statistic information  when date sets become large.So,centralized approaches  probably suffer from problem of low efficiency and  scalability while handling large-scale data sets. A  distributed TDS approach is proposed to address the  anonymization problem in distributed system.It  concentrates on privacy protection rather than scalability  issues.This approach employs information gain only, but  not its privacy loss. [1] Indexing data structures speeds up the process of  anonymization of data and generalizing it, because  indexing data structure avoids frequently scanning the  whole data[15]. These approaches fails to work in parallel  or distributed environments such as cloud systems since  the indexing structures are centralized. Centralized  approaches are difficult in handling large-scale data sets  well on cloud using just one single VM even if the VM has  the highest computation and storage capability. Fung et.al proposed TDS approach which produces an  anonymize data set with exploration problem on data. A  data structure taxonomy indexed partition [TIPS] is  exploited which improves efficiency of TDS, it fails to  handle large data set. But this approach is centralized  leasing to in adequacy of large data set. Raj H, Nathuji R, Singh A, England P proposes cache  hierarchy aware core assignment and page coloring based  cache partitioning to provide resource isolation and better  resource management by which it guarantees security of  data during processing.But Page coloring approach  enforces the performance degradation in case VM’s  working set doesn’t fit in cache partition[14]. Ke Wang , Philip S. Yu considers the following  problem. Data holder needs to release a version of data that  are used for building classification models. But the problem  is privacy protection and wants to protect against an  external source for sensitive information. So by adapting the iterative bottom-up generalization  approach to generalize the data from data mining. IV. METHODOLOGY Suppression: In this method, certain values of the  attributes are replaced by an asterisk *. All or some values  of a column may be replaced by * Generalization: In this method, individual values of  attributes are replaced by with a broader category. For  example, the value 19 of the attribute Age may be  replaced by ≠¤ 20, the value 23 by 20 A. Bottom-Up Generalization Bottom-Up Generalization is one of the efficient kanonymization  methods. K-Anonymity where the  attributes are suppressed or generalized until each row is  identical with at least k-1 other rows. Now database is said  to be k-anonymous. Bottom-Up Generalization (BUG)  approach of anonymization is the process of starting from  the lowest anonymization level which is iteratively  performed. We leverage privacy trade-off as the search  metric. Bottom-Up Generalization and MR Bottom up  Generalization (MRBUG) Driver are used. The following  steps of the Advanced BUG are ,they are data partition, run  MRBUG Driver on data set, combines all anonymization  levels of the partitioned data items and then apply  generalization to original data set without violating the kanonymity. Fig.1 System architecture of bottom up approach   Here a Advanced Bottom-Up Generalization approach  which improves the scalability and performance of BUG. Two levels of parallelization which is done by  mapreduce(MR) on cloud environment. Mapreduce on  cloud has two levels of parallelization.First is job level  parallelization which means multiple MR jobs can be  executed simultaneously that makes full use of cloud  infrastructure.Second one is task level parallelization  which means that multiple mapper or reducer tasks in a  MR job are executed simultaneously on data partitions. The  following steps are performed in our approach, First the  datasets are split up into smaller datasets by using several  job level mapreduce, and then the partitioned data sets are  anonymized Bottom up Generalization Driver. Then the  obtained intermediate anonymization levels are Integrated  into one. Ensure that all integrated intermediate level never  violates K-anonmity property. Obtaining then the merged  intermediate anonymized dataset Then the driver is  executed on original data set, and produce the resultant  an onymization level. The Algorithm for Advanced Bottom  Up Generalization[15] is given below, The above algorithm describes bottom-up generalization. In  ith iteration, generalize R by the best generalization Gbest . B. Mapreduce The Map framework which is classified into map and  reduce functions.Map is a function which parcels out task  to other different nodes in distributed cluster. Reduce is a  function that collates the task and resolves results into  single value. Fig.2 MapReduce Framework The MR framework is fault-tolerant since each node in  cluster had to report back with status updates and  completed work periodically.For example if a node  remains static for longer interval than the expected,then a  master node notes it and re-assigns that task to other  nodes.A single MR job is inadequate to accomplish task. So, a group of MR jobs are orchestrated in one MR driver  to achieve the task. MR framework consists of MR Driver  and two types of jobs.One is IGPL Initialization and other  is IGPL Update. The MR driver arranges the execution of  jobs. Hadoop which provides the mechanism to set global  variables for the Mappers and the Reducers. The best  Specialization which is passed into Map function of IGPL  Update job.In Bottom-Up Approach, the data is initialized  first to its current state.Then the generalizations process are  carried out k -anonymity is not violated. That is, we have to  climb the Taxonomy Tree of the attribute till required Anonymity is achieved. 1: while R that does not satisfy anonymity requirement do 2: for all generalizations G do 3: compute the IP(G); 4: end for; 5: find best generalization Gbest; 6: generalize R through Gbest; 7: end while; 8: output R; V. Experiment Evaluation To explore the data generalization from data mining in  order to hide the detailed information, rather to discover  the patterns and trends. Once the data has been masked, all  the standard data mining techniques can be applied without  modifying it. Here data mining technique not only discover  useful patterns, but also masks the private information   Fig.3 Change of execution time of TDS and BUG   Fig 3 shows the results of change in execution time of  TDS and BUG algorithm. We compared the execution time  of TDS and BUG for the size of EHR ranging from 50 to  500 MB, keeping p=1. Presenting the bottom-up  generalization for transforming the specific data to less  specific. Thus focusing on key issues to achieve quality  and scalability. The quality is addressed by trade-off  information and privacy and an bottom-up generalization  approach.The scalability is addressed by a novel data  structure to focus generalizations.To evaluate efficiency  and effectiveness of BUG approach, thus we compare  BUG with TDS.Experiments are performed in cloud  environment.These approaches are implemented in Java  language and standard Hadoop MapReduce API. VI. CONCLUSION Here we studied scalability problem for anonymizing the  data on cloud for big data applications by using Bottom Up  Generalization and proposes a scalable Bottom Up  Generalization. The BUG approach performed as  follows,first Data partitioning ,executing of driver that  produce a intermediate result. After that, these results are  merged into one and apply a generalization approach. This  produces the anonymized data. The data anonymization is  done using MR Framework on cloud.This shows that  scalability and efficiency are improved significantly over  existing approaches. REFERENCES [1] Xuyun Zhang, Laurence T. Yang, Chang Liu, and Jinjun Chen,â€Å"A  Scalable Two-Phase Top-Down Specialization Approach for Data  Anonymization Using MapReduce on Cloud†, vol. 25, no. 2,  february 2014. [2] Ke Wang, Yu, P.S,Chakraborty, S, â€Å" Bottom-up generalization: a  data mining solution to privacy protection† [3] B.C.M. Fung, K. Wang, R. Chen and P.S. Yu, â€Å"Privacy-Preserving  Data Publishing: A Survey of Recent Developments,† ACM  Comput. Surv., vol. 42, no. 4, pp.1-53, 2010. [4] K. LeFevre, D.J. DeWitt and R. Ramakrishnan, â€Å"Workload- Aware  Anonymization Techniques for Large-Scale Datasets,† ACM Trans.  Database Syst., vol. 33, no. 3, pp. 1-47, 2008. [5] B. Fung, K. Wang, L. Wang and P.C.K. Hung, â€Å"Privacy- Preserving  Data Publishing for Cluster Analysis,† Data Knowl.Eng., Vol.68,  no.6, pp. 552-575, 2009. [6] B.C.M. Fung, K. Wang, and P.S. Yu, â€Å"Anonymizing Classification  Data for Privacy Preservation,† IEEE Trans. Knowledge and Data  Eng., vol. 19, no. 5, pp. 711-725, May 2007. [7] Hassan Takabi, James B.D. Joshi and Gail-Joon Ahn, â€Å"Security and  Privacy Challenges in Cloud Computing Environments†. [8] K. LeFevre, D.J. DeWitt, and R. Ramakrishnan, â€Å"Incognito:  Efficient Full-Domain K-Anonymity,† Proc. ACM SIGMOD Int’l  Conf. Management of Data (SIGMOD ’05), pp. 49-60, 2005. [9] T. IwuchukwuandJ.F. Naughton, â€Å"K-Anonymization as Spatial  Indexing: Toward Scalable and Incremental Anonymization,† Proc.  33rdIntlConf. VeryLarge DataBases (VLDB07), pp.746-757, 2007 [10] J. Dean and S. Ghemawat, â€Å"Mapreduce: Simplified Data Processing  on Large Clusters,† Comm. ACM, vol. 51, no. 1, pp. 107-113,2008. [11] Dean J, Ghemawat S. â€Å"Mapreduce: a flexible data processing tool,†Ã‚  Communications of the ACM 2010;53(1):72–77. DOI:  10.1145/1629175.1629198. [12] Jiuyong Li, Jixue Liu , Muzammil Baig , Raymond Chi-Wing  Wong, â€Å"Information based data anonymization for classification  utility† [13]X. Xiao and Y. Tao, â€Å"Anatomy: Simple and Effective Privacy  Preservation,† Proc. 32nd Int’l Conf. Very Large Data Bases  (VLDB’06), pp. 139-150, 2006. [14] Raj H, Nathuji R, Singh A, England P. â€Å"Resource management for  isolation enhanced cloud services,† In: Proceedings of the  2009ACM workshop on cloud computing security, Chicago, Illinois,  USA, 2009, p.77–84. [15] K.R.Pandilakshmi, G.Rashitha Banu. â€Å"An Advanced Bottom up  Generalization Approach for Big Data on Cloud† , Volume: 03, June  2014, Pages: 1054-1059.. [16] Intel â€Å"Big Data in the Cloud: Converging Technologies†. [17] Jiuyong Li, Jixue Liu Muzammil Baig, Raymond Chi-Wing Wong,  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Information based data anonymization for classification utility†.

Essay --

Air superiority will continue to be vital for the preservation of the U. S. Military well into future contingency operations. Airpower is one of the military’s greatest strengths providing global reach and deterrence, and will continue well into the time to come. However, the traditional air missions of air combat and bombing are being replaced by Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV’s) and intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) capabilities only imagined in the past. UAV’s are not only in great demand by forces deployed in Afghanistan, they are also at work in a wide range of civilian applications, from law enforcement surveillance to mundane tasks such as checking remote pipelines or monitoring livestock. 1 The demand is so high that it surpasses supply, which naturally means fast track development of new systems, to meet the needs of increasing requirements. 2 For example, Lockheed Martin is developing a football sized UAV that can fly in and out of the water. This adds to the reach of a submarine by having its own fleet of small flying UAV’s that can search a grid the ...

A Good Citizen

A good citizen needs to imbibe many qualities. That he has some duties and responsibilities to bear is true, but at same time, he enjoys some rights and privileges as a citizen of a free state. While he has every right to participate in the judicial, legal politics, religious and social affairs of the nation, he has also some responsibilities i. e. not to injure the sentiments of others and to protect the weak against the strong. To stand by the state, under all conditions, is his first and foremost duty. A good citizen must be ready to sacrifice his everything for the sake of his motherland.He is also required to be a patriot and nationalist. He should have firm and deep faith in the welfare of his motherland. He has to obey law and order. But he has also to keep in his heart the betterment of the country, the good of society and the interest of the nation. A good citizen must respect the cultural heritage of his country, i. e. he will have to respect the heroes, ‘the prophet, the sages and saints of his country. He must respect the race which has given birth to him. He must always keep in mind the future of his country. He must attempt to raise the standard of living of his country by working honestly.At an event of aggression or foreign attack, he must be ready to shed his blood for the sake of his motherland. Thus, defense of the country is the supreme duty of a good citizen. Unity of the nations should be his topmost priority. He should work for the unity of the country. A Goodwill for other races, protection to the weak, help to the victims, sympathetic and kind consideration to his fellow citizens are things that are needed in good citizen. A good citizen should have a spirit of cooperation, friendliness, humanity, dedication, devotion for his fellow citizens.He must respect other faiths. He must not do anything which brings disgrace to his society or to his country. Greatest good of greatest number should be his principle. All these good and great qualities, if possessed, make one a good citizen. We are all citizens of one country or the other. We acquire citizenship of our country generally by virtue of our birth. But to be a good citizen requires a lot of training and understanding. As the subject of a country, every citizen has some duties and he enjoys at the same time certain rights.All of us have a right to take part in the legislative as well as judicial activities of this country and can give free expression to our views and opinions from the platform and through the press. A good citizen, therefore, is one who is always broad minded. He must, if living in India, consider himself an Indian first and anything else afterwards. He is ready even to shed his blood for the honour and glory of his country. A good citizen has the good of his country at heart. To raise his country to a higher level of civilization must be his aim.He must not forget that the future, no less than the present, is always lined with the past. A go od citizen must keep the welfare of his town or city or village foremost in his mind at the time of elections. He should understand the existing educational and other institutions of his country and make efforts to bring about desirable improvements. He must love his neighbours. He must be sympathetic, broad-minded and generous. â€Å"In this way, a good citizen should always be ready to forget and forgive. In a word, he should be a perfect gentleman. †

The History of Algebra

The History of Algebra Various derivations of the word algebra, which is of Arabian origin, have been given by different writers. The first mention of the word is to be found in the title of a work by Mahommed ben Musa al-Khwarizmi (Hovarezmi), who flourished about the beginning of the 9th century. The full title is ilm al-jebr wal-muqabala, which contains the ideas of restitution and comparison, or opposition and comparison, or resolution and equation, jebr being derived from the verb jabara, to reunite, and muqabala, from gabala, to make equal. (The root jabara is also met with in the word algebrista, which means a bone-setter, and is still in common use in Spain.) The same derivation is given by Lucas Paciolus (Luca Pacioli), who reproduces the phrase in the transliterated form alghebra e almucabala, and ascribes the invention of the art to the Arabians. Other writers have derived the word from the Arabic particle al (the definite article), and gerber, meaning man. Since, however, Geber happened to be the name of a celebrated Moorish philosopher who flourished in about the 11th or 12th century, it has been supposed that he was the founder of algebra, which has since perpetuated his name. The evidence of Peter Ramus (1515-1572) on this point is interesting, but he gives no authority for his singular statements. In the preface to his Arithmeticae libri duo et totidem Algebrae (1560) he says: The name Algebra is Syriac, signifying the art or doctrine of an excellent man. For Geber, in Syriac, is a name applied to men, and is sometimes a term of honour, as master or doctor among us. There was a certain learned mathematician who sent his algebra, written in the Syriac language, to Alexander the Great, and he named it almucabala, that is, the book of dark or mysterious things, which others would rather call the doctrine of algebra. To this day the same book is in great estimation among the learned in the oriental nations, and by the Indians, who cultivate this art, it is called aljabra and alboret; though the name of the author himself is not known. The uncertain authority of these statements, and the plausibility of the preceding explanation, have caused philologists to accept the derivation from al and jabara. Robert Recorde in his Whetstone of Witte (1557) uses the variant algeber, while John Dee (1527-1608) affirms that algiebar, and not algebra, is the correct form, and appeals to the authority of the Arabian Avicenna. Although the term algebra is now in universal use, various other appellations were used by the Italian mathematicians during the Renaissance. Thus we find Paciolus calling it lArte Magiore; ditta dal vulgo la Regula de la Cosa over Alghebra e Almucabala. The name larte magiore, the greater art, is designed to distinguish it from larte minore, the lesser art, a term which he applied to the modern arithmetic. His second variant, la regula de la cosa, the rule of the thing or unknown quantity, appears to have been in common use in Italy, and the word cosa was preserved for several centuries in the forms coss or algebra, cossic or algebraic, cossist or algebraist, c. Other Italian writers termed it the Regula rei et census, the rule of the thing and the product, or the root and the square. The principle underlying this expression is probably to be found in the fact that it measured the limits of their attainments in algebra, for they were unable to solve equations of a higher degree than the quadratic or square. Franciscus Vieta (Francois Viete) named it Specious Arithmetic, on account of the species of the quantities involved, which he represented symbolically by the various letters of the alphabet. Sir Isaac Newton introduced the term Universal Arithmetic, since it is concerned with the doctrine of operations, not affected on numbers, but on general symbols. Notwithstanding these and other idiosyncratic appellations, European mathematicians have adhered to the older name, by which the subject is now universally known. Continued on page two.   This document is part of an article on Algebra from the 1911 edition of an encyclopedia, which is out of copyright here in the U.S. The article is in the public domain, and you may copy, download, print and distribute this work as you see fit. Every effort has been made to present this text accurately and cleanly, but no guarantees are made against errors. Neither Melissa Snell nor About may be held liable for any problems you experience with the text version or with any electronic form of this document. It is difficult to assign the invention of any art or science definitely to any particular age or race. The few fragmentary records, which have come down to us from past civilizations, must not be regarded as representing the totality of their knowledge, and the omission of a science or art does not necessarily imply that the science or art was unknown. It was formerly the custom to assign the invention of algebra to the Greeks, but since the decipherment of the Rhind papyrus by Eisenlohr this view has changed, for in this work there are distinct signs of an algebraic analysis. The particular problem-a heap (hau) and its seventh makes 19-is solved as we should now solve a simple equation; but Ahmes varies his methods in other similar problems. This discovery carries the invention of algebra back to about 1700 B.C., if not earlier. It is probable that the algebra of the Egyptians was of a most rudimentary nature, for otherwise we should expect to find traces of it in the works of the Greek aeometers. of whom Thales of Miletus (640-546 B.C.) was the first. Notwithstanding the prolixity of writers and the number of the writings, all attempts at extracting an algebraic analysis from their geometrical theorems and problems have been fruitless, and it is generally conceded that their analysis was geometrical and had little or no affinity to algebra. The first extant work which approaches to a treatise on algebra is by Diophantus (q.v.), an Alexandrian mathematician, who flourished about A.D. 350. The original, which consisted of a preface and thirteen books, is now lost, but we have a Latin translation of the first six books and a fragment of another on polygonal numbers by Xylander of Augsburg (1575), and Latin and Greek translations by Gaspar Bachet de Merizac (1621-1670). Other editions have been published, of wh ich we may mention Pierre Fermats (1670), T. L. Heaths (1885) and P. Tannerys (1893-1895). In the preface to this work, which is dedicated to one Dionysius, Diophantus explains his notation, naming the square, cube and fourth powers, dynamis, cubus, dynamodinimus, and so on, according to the sum in the indices. The unknown he terms arithmos, the number, and in solutions he marks it by the final s; he explains the generation of powers, the rules for multiplication and division of simple quantities, but he does not treat of the addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of compound quantities. He then proceeds to discuss various artifices for the simplification of equations, giving methods which are still in common use. In the body of the work he displays considerable ingenuity in reducing his problems to simple equations, which admit either of direct solution, or fall into the class known as indeterminate equations. This latter class he discussed so assiduously that they are often known as Diophantine problems, and the methods of resolving them as the Diophantine analysis (see EQUATION, Indeterminate.) It is difficult to believe that this work of Diophantus arose spontaneously in a period of general stagnation. It is more than likely that he was indebted to earlier writers, whom he omits to mention, and whose works are now lost; nevertheless, but for this work, we should be led to assume that algebra was almost, if not entirely, unknown to the Greeks. The Romans, who succeeded the Greeks as the chief civilized power in Europe, failed to set store on their literary and scientific treasures; mathematics was all but neglected; and beyond a few improvements in arithmetical computations, there are no material advances to be recorded. In the chronological development of our subject we have now to turn to the Orient. Investigation of the writings of Indian mathematicians has exhibited a fundamental distinction between the Greek and Indian mind, the former being pre-eminently geometrical and speculative, the latter arithmetical and mainly practical. We find that geometry was neglected except in so far as it was of service to astronomy; trigonometry was advanced, and algebra improved far beyond the attainments of Diophantus. Continued on page three.   This document is part of an article on Algebra from the 1911 edition of an encyclopedia, which is out of copyright here in the U.S. The article is in the public domain, and you may copy, download, print and distribute this work as you see fit. Every effort has been made to present this text accurately and cleanly, but no guarantees are made against errors. Neither Melissa Snell nor About may be held liable for any problems you experience with the text version or with any electronic form of this document. The earliest Indian mathematician of whom we have certain knowledge is Aryabhatta, who flourished about the beginning of the 6th century of our era. The fame of this astronomer and mathematician rests on his work, the Aryabhattiyam, the third chapter of which is devoted to mathematics. Ganessa, an eminent astronomer, mathematician and scholiast of Bhaskara, quotes this work and makes separate mention of the cuttaca (pulveriser), a device for effecting the solution of indeterminate equations. Henry Thomas Colebrooke, one of the earliest modern investigators of Hindu science, presumes that the treatise of Aryabhatta extended to determinate quadratic equations, indeterminate equations of the first degree, and probably of the second. An astronomical work, called the Surya-siddhanta (knowledge of the Sun), of uncertain authorship and probably belonging to the 4th or 5th century, was considered of great merit by the Hindus, who ranked it only second to the work of Brahmagupta, who flourish ed about a century later. It is of great interest to the historical student, for it exhibits the influence of Greek science upon Indian mathematics at a period prior to Aryabhatta. After an interval of about a century, during which mathematics attained its highest level, there flourished Brahmagupta (b. A.D. 598), whose work entitled Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta (The revised system of Brahma) contains several chapters devoted to mathematics. Of other Indian writers mention may be made of Cridhara, the author of a Ganita-sara (Quintessence of Calculation), and Padmanabha, the author of an algebra. A period of mathematical stagnation then appears to have possessed the Indian mind for an interval of several centuries, for the works of the next author of any moment stand but little in advance of Brahmagupta. We refer to Bhaskara Acarya, whose work the Siddhanta-ciromani (Diadem of anastronomical System), written in 1150, contains two important chapters, the Lilavati (the beautiful [science or art]) and Viga-ganita (root-extraction), which are given up to arithmetic and algebra. English translations of the mathematical chapters of the Brahma-siddhanta and Siddhanta-ciromani by H. T. Colebrooke (1817), and of the Surya-siddhanta by E. Burgess, with annotations by W. D. Whitney (1860), may be consulted for details. The question as to whether the Greeks borrowed their algebra from the Hindus or vice versa has been the subject of much discussion. There is no doubt that there was a constant traffic between Greece and India, and it is more than probable that an exchange of produce would be accompanied by a transference of ideas. Moritz Cantor suspects the influence of Diophantine methods, more particularly in the Hindu solutions of indeterminate equations, where certain technical terms are, in all probability, of Greek origin. However this may be, it is certain that the Hindu algebraists were far in advance of Diophantus. The deficiencies of the Greek symbolism were partially remedied; subtraction was denoted by placing a dot over the subtrahend; multiplication, by placing bha (an abbreviation of bhavita, the product) after the factom; division, by placing the divisor under the dividend; and square root, by inserting ka (an abbreviation of karana, irrational) before the quantity. The unknown was ca lled yavattavat, and if there were several, the first took this appellation, and the others were designated by the names of colours; for instance, x was denoted by ya and y by ka (from kalaka, black). Continued on page four. This document is part of an article on Algebra from the 1911 edition of an encyclopedia, which is out of copyright here in the U.S. The article is in the public domain, and you may copy, download, print and distribute this work as you see fit. Every effort has been made to present this text accurately and cleanly, but no guarantees are made against errors. Neither Melissa Snell nor About may be held liable for any problems you experience with the text version or with any electronic form of this document. A notable improvement on the ideas of Diophantus is to be found in the fact that the Hindus recognized the existence of two roots of a quadratic equation, but the negative roots were considered to be inadequate, since no interpretation could be found for them. It is also supposed that they anticipated discoveries of the solutions of higher equations. Great advances were made in the study of indeterminate equations, a branch of analysis in which Diophantus excelled. But whereas Diophantus aimed at obtaining a single solution, the Hindus strove for a general method by which any indeterminate problem could be resolved. In this they were completely successful, for they obtained general solutions for the equations ax( or -)byc, xyaxbyc (since rediscovered by Leonhard Euler) and cy2ax2b. A particular case of the last equation, namely, y2ax21, sorely taxed the resources of modern algebraists. It was proposed by Pierre de Fermat to Bernhard Frenicle de Bessy, and in 1657 to all mathematician s. John Wallis and Lord Brounker jointly obtained a tedious solution which was published in 1658, and afterwards in 1668 by John Pell in his Algebra. A solution was also given by Fermat in his Relation. Although Pell had nothing to do with the solution, posterity has termed the equation Pells Equation, or Problem, when more rightly it should be the Hindu Problem, in recognition of the mathematical attainments of the Brahmans. Hermann Hankel has pointed out the readiness with which the Hindus passed from number to magnitude and vice versa. Although this transition from the discontinuous to continuous is not truly scientific, yet it materially augmented the development of algebra, and Hankel affirms that if we define algebra as the application of arithmetical operations to both rational and irrational numbers or magnitudes, then the Brahmans are the real inventors of algebra. The integration of the scattered tribes of Arabia in the 7th century by the stirring religious propaganda of Mahomet was accompanied by a meteoric rise in the intellectual powers of a hitherto obscure race. The Arabs became the custodians of Indian and Greek science, whilst Europe was rent by internal dissensions. Under the rule of the Abbasids, Bagdad became the centre of scientific thought; physicians and astronomers from India and Syria flocked to their court; Greek and Indian manuscripts were translated (a work commenced by the Caliph Mamun (813-833) and ably continued by his successors); and in about a century the Arabs were placed in possession of the vast stores of Greek and Indian learning. Euclids Elements were first translated in the reign of Harun-al-Rashid (786-809), and revised by the order of Mamun. But these translations were regarded as imperfect, and it remained for Tobit ben Korra (836-901) to produce a satisfactory edition. Ptolemys Almagest, the works of Apolloniu s, Archimedes, Diophantus and portions of the Brahmasiddhanta, were also translated. The first notable Arabian mathematician was Mahommed ben Musa al-Khwarizmi, who flourished in the reign of Mamun. His treatise on algebra and arithmetic (the latter part of which is only extant in the form of a Latin translation, discovered in 1857) contains nothing that was unknown to the Greeks and Hindus; it exhibits methods allied to those of both races, with the Greek element predominating. The part devoted to algebra has the title al-jeur walmuqabala, and the arithmetic begins with Spoken has Algoritmi, the name Khwarizmi or Hovarezmi having passed into the word Algoritmi, which has been further transformed into the more modern words algorism and algorithm, signifying a method of computing. Continued on page five. This document is part of an article on Algebra from the 1911 edition of an encyclopedia, which is out of copyright here in the U.S. The article is in the public domain, and you may copy, download, print and distribute this work as you see fit. Every effort has been made to present this text accurately and cleanly, but no guarantees are made against errors. Neither Melissa Snell nor About may be held liable for any problems you experience with the text version or with any electronic form of this document. Tobit ben Korra (836-901), born at Harran in Mesopotamia, an accomplished linguist, mathematician and astronomer, rendered conspicuous service by his translations of various Greek authors. His investigation of the properties of amicable numbers (q.v.) and of the problem of trisecting an angle, are of importance. The Arabians more closely resembled the Hindus than the Greeks in the choice of studies; their philosophers blended speculative dissertations with the more progressive study of medicine; their mathematicians neglected the subtleties of the conic sections and Diophantine analysis, and applied themselves more particularly to perfect the system of numerals (see NUMERAL), arithmetic and astronomy (q.v..) It thus came about that while some progress was made in algebra, the talents of the race were bestowed on astronomy and trigonometry (q.v..) Fahri des al Karbi, who flourished about the beginning of the 11th century, is the author of the most important Arabian work on algebra. He follows the methods of Diophantus; his work on indeterminate equations has no resemblance to the Indian methods, and contains nothing that cannot be gathered from Diophantus. He solved quadratic equations both geometrically and algebraically, and also equations of the form x2naxnb0; he also proved certain relations between the sum of the first n natural numbers, and the sums of their squares and cubes. Cubic equations were solved geometrically by determining the intersections of conic sections. Archimedes problem of dividing a sphere by a plane into two segments having a prescribed ratio, was first expressed as a cubic equation by Al Mahani, and the first solution was given by Abu Gafar al Hazin. The determination of the side of a regular heptagon which can be inscribed or circumscribed to a given circle was reduced to a more complicated equation which was first successfully resolved by Abul Gud. The method of solving equations geometrically was considerably developed by Omar Khayyam of Khorassan, who flourished in the 11th century. This author questioned the possibility of solving cubics by pure algebra, and biquadratics by geometry. His first contention was not disproved until the 15th century, but his second was disposed of by Abul Weta (940-908), who succeeded in solving the forms x4a and x4ax3b. Although the foundations of the geometrical resolution of cubic equations are to be ascribed to the Greeks (for Eutocius assigns to Menaechmus two methods of solving the equation x3a and x32a3), yet the subsequent development by the Arabs must be regarded as one of their most important achievements. The Greeks had succeeded in solving an isolated example; the Arabs accomplished the general solution of numerical equations. Considerable attention has been directed to the different styles in which the Arabian authors have treated their subject. Moritz Cantor has suggested that at one time there existed two schools, one in sympathy With the Greeks, the other with the Hindus; and that, although the writings of the latter were first studied, they were rapidly discarded for the more perspicuous Grecian methods, so that, among the later Arabian writers, the Indian methods were practically forgotten and their mathematics became essentially Greek in character. Turning to the Arabs in the West we find the same enlightened spirit; Cordova, the capital of the Moorish empire in Spain, was as much a centre of learning as Bagdad. The earliest known Spanish mathematician is Al Madshritti (d. 1007), whose fame rests on a dissertation on amicable numbers, and on the schools which were founded by his pupils at Cordoya, Dama and Granada. Gabir ben Allah of Sevilla, commonly called Geber, was a celebrated astronomer and apparently skilled in algebra, for it has been supposed that the word algebra is compounded from his name. When the Moorish empire began to wane the brilliant intellectual gifts which they had so abundantly nourished during three or four centuries became enfeebled, and after that period they failed to produce an author comparable with those of the 7th to the 11th centuries. Continued on page six. This document is part of an article on Algebra from the 1911 edition of an encyclopedia, which is out of copyright here in the U.S. The article is in the public domain, and you may copy, download, print and distribute this work as you see fit. Every effort has been made to present this text accurately and cleanly, but no guarantees are made against errors. Neither Melissa Snell nor About may be held liable for any problems you experience with the text version or with any electronic form of this document.

Criminology Research Paper essays

Criminology Research Paper essays According to The Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies, human sex trafficking, not far behind the illegal drug-trade, has become the second fastest increasing criminal industry in todays world. This type of slavery has been traced back to the ancient Mesopotamian and Mediterranean civilizations and has continued to grow. What is human sex trafficking? Commonly referred to as "modern-day slavery, its the recruitment, harboring, transportation, provision, or obtaining of a person for the purpose of a commercial sex act. This horrific yet ever-increasing issue is one that desperately needs to end quickly, since each day thousands of innocent children around the world are losing their freedom to this barbaric lifestyle. First, Ill start with some statistics. In an article written by Initiative against Sexual Trafficking, it is estimated that somewhere between 700,000 and four million women, children and men are trafficked each year, and no region is unaffected. An estimated two million children, the majority of them girls, are sexually exploited in the multi-billion dollar commercial sex industry. Around half of trafficking victims in the world are under the age of eighteen. Sixty-eight percent of female sex trafficking victims meet the clinical criteria for post-traumatic stress disorder, and more than two-thirds of sex trafficked children suffer additional abuse at the hands of their traffickers. Trafficked children are significantly more likely to develop mental health problems, abuse substances, engage in prostitution as adults, and either commit or be victimized by violent crimes later in life. Women who have been trafficked for the purpose of sexual exploitation experience a significantly higher rate of HIV and other STDs, tuberculosis, and permanent damage to their reproductive systems.(UNICEF). One would think with such disturbin...

The life and times of rosie the riveter Movie Review

The life and times of rosie the riveter - Movie Review Example The documentary The Life and Times of Rosie the Riveter is 60-minutes long and it mixes black and white newsreel footage. The director also incorporates color-filmed interviews of five women working in the defense plants during World War II including Wanita Allen, Gladys Belcher, Lyn Childs, Lola Weixel and Margaret Wright. Most importantly, the documentary offers these women’s views about the wartime propaganda relating to female defense workers of the period. The wartime experiences offered by these ‘Rosies’ clearly reflect the general mood of the women working in defense plants of the U.S. during World War II, because they belonged to different backgrounds such as Illinois, Arkansas farms, Brooklyn, and Detroit and they include three black women and two white. Therefore, The Life and Times of Rosie the Riveter has been highly regarded for its life-like presentation as well as views of the condition of the women working in defense plants and this documentary fil m has been an important topic of discussion since its original release in 1980. Through the interviews with these ‘Rosies’, the audience become conscious about the unusual working conditions created by the high-pressured war production drive. The views of the women working in defense plants also help the viewers in recognizing various threats to women’s liberation during the period. â€Å"The film suggests that in the manipulation of public images of wartime women, the government, employers and media were pushing hard the traditional view of Woman as Housewife to suppress the runaway implications of women doing mens work so successfully, with the pride and camaraderie that wartime working conditions engendered.† (Davenport) As the documentary projects the women being interviewed in their present environment, the viewers get a convincing illustration of their condition during the World War II. In a

Domhus UK Ltd. Quality and Environmental Management Systems Report Essay

Domhus UK Ltd. Quality and Environmental Management Systems Report - Essay Example The management system standard that is currently the most commonly employed and recognized is the quality improvement standard ISO 9001. The ISO 9001 standard comprises of the requirements as per which the organizations are certified. The chief requirements under the ISO 9001 are forming goals and targets, carrying out evaluations and performing remedial and preventative measures, handling documents and re-evaluating the system among others (Rasmussen, 2007, pp 17-18). Environmental Management Systems Standards The recent times had observed rising environmental legislation, enhanced interest amid stockholders in terms of environmental concerns in addition to business organizations’ inclination to accomplish reduction in expenses by minimising the use of energy, water and so on. This had led to the evolution of environmental management system standards (Wilkinson & Dale, 2002, p 285). The rationale behind the formation of standards for environmental management system is to endow companies with an efficient system for administrating services, and product development activities which have environmental influence. British Standardization Institute was the foremost body to create standards for environmental management systems. Nevertheless, the most distinguished and most exercised standards of environmental management are the ISO standard (Wilkinson & Dale, 1999, p 100). ... This had led to the evolution of environmental management system standards (Wilkinson & Dale, 2002, p 285). The rationale behind the formation of standards for environmental management system is to endow companies with an efficient system for administrating services, and product development activities which have environmental influence. British Standardization Institute was the foremost body to create standards for environmental management systems. Nevertheless, the most distinguished and most exercised standards of environmental management are the ISO standard (Wilkinson & Dale, 1999, p 100). Integrated Management Systems The development of management system standards started with the creation of quality management. However, with the passage of time, several management systems have evolved comprising of a broad range of organizational aspects. The rising number of management systems had resulted in the model of integrated management systems that brings about the amalgamation of a nu mber of individual management systems. The thought behind the theory of integrated management system is that a company can handle its business operations by means of an integrated structure instead of using many individual systems. The integration of quality management, environmental management systems and the occupational health & safety management system is the most common structure in the integrated management systems. This concept became applicable with the publication and implementation of ISO 14000 in addition to other standards (Zutshi & Sohal, 2005, p 213). Benefits of Integrating There are various benefits that an organization can enjoy as a result of integrating its different management systems. This is because the quality,

Investment Portfolio Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Investment Portfolio - Research Paper Example It involves providing concise method of communicating the process and objectives amongst all parties involved with the investments and to assign responsibility for implementations. (Winfield R. G. and Curry S. J., 1995.) Once the Investment Policy has been established other factors affecting the investment such as financial and economic conditions, and risk factors will be examined. How to allocate the 100,000 to specific assets will be determined. RiskGrades will be used for optimal allocation. RiskGradeTM measure is an open and transparent benchmark to measure the risk of the world's financial assets. Another optimization criterion to be looked at briefly is the Markowitz co-variance approach. According to Markowitz, (1952), the co-variance matrix can be used to compute portfolio variance. Peter Zangari (1996)'s document on risk metrics assumes that the market is driven by risk factors with observable co-variance. These risk factors which have been incorporated in the analysis include; time series of prices or levels of stocks, currencies (foreign exchange rates), commodities and interest rates. The evaluation of investment performance is very important to any investor. Evaluation goes hand in hand with re-examining the policies and altering the strategies. The constructed portfolio will be monitored throughout the period under review. The reasons why it is performing in a certain way is examined. Policy Statement This is a statement of Investment Policy and investment goals, which establish the investment management procedures. The five basic components of the statement include; Summary of investor circumstances. Investment objectives, time horizon and risk attitudes. Permissible asset classes, constraints and restrictions. The asset allocation decisions. Selection, monitoring and control procedures. For an investor, investment policy depends on circumstances (Winfield, 2005). Institutional investor will be concerned with long-term investments as opposed to an individual investor who will be limited to personal factors such as financial situation, age, family circumstances, and personal preferences to risk. An elderly investor will invest in investments which are short-term though the risks might be high as opposed to a young investor. Diversification comes in for the issue of risks. Diversification is a risk limiting strategy. Since I am a young investor, I would like to diversify my investment and also take a greater amount of risk to enhance the potential earnings on the investment. According to Winfield (2005), as a

Evolution of Management Thinking Essay Example for Free

Evolution of Management Thinking Essay It was an era where so many alterations in the world Economy took place. In the closing decades of the 19th century there was a quest of seeking innovative ways to increase organizational efficiency and effectiveness. The Scientific Management Theory initiated on the basis of that. In this period of time crafts production was substituted by large factories in which a lot of technical revolutions have been taking place. The owners and managers were not capable of coping to these challenges therefore they hunted for advanced techniques to overcome this situation. As a solution the concepts of Job Specialization and division of labour came about. In this scenario workers who specialized in their respective tasks became more skilled. The Scientific Management Theory Fredrick W. Taylor was the architecture of the concept Scientific Management, â€Å"The systematic study of relationships between people and tasks for the purpose of redesigning the work process to increase efficiency†. It was believed that the most effective and efficient division of labour could best be determined by the concept of Scientific Management. There were four core principles in this concept. * Investigation and experimentation on organization performance * Codification of new methods/standards * Selection of employees according to codified standards * Establishing a level of performance and a pay system with rewards In 1910 most of the organizations were using this concept but selectively. Even though there was an increase in performance some disputes about this concept lead to an increase in trade union involvement. There were some major issues in this concept. * Availability of fewer jobs * Job dissatisfaction * Distrust among employees and employers. Some organizations redesigned the principles according to their vision. For example introduction of moving conveyer belts in Henry Ford’s factory can be taken in to consideration. However these approaches were not able to solve the emerged issues. Nevertheless Taylor’s work had a lasting effect on management production systems. Frank Gilbreth and Lillian Gilbreth who were the successors of Taylor studied how the working environment influences the performance of the employees. They made a heavy contribution in time-and-motion study. They demonstrated that by following arrangements organizations can solve their issues effectively. * Breaking up each job action into its components. * Finding better ways to perform the action. * Reorganizing each job action to be more efficient Administrative Management Theory Researchers attempted to discover how to create an organizational structure that leads to high efficiency and effectiveness. Theory of Bureaucracy was developed by Max Weber as a succession of these researches. Bureaucracy is basically a formal system of organization and administration designed to ensure efficiency and effectiveness. There were several principles in this theory. Weber identified several factors there should be in a bureaucracy system. Simultaneously Henry Fayol identified 14 principles that should be vital to increasing the efficiency of the management process according to his perspective. These studies of Fayol and Weber laid the foundation of modern management theory. Behavioural Management Theory This is the study of how managers should behave in order to motivate employees and encourage them to strive towards high levels of performance as an organization. In the previous theory there wasn’t a major concern about the employee viewpoint. Thus Mary Farker Follett explained why it is important to think about the human side of management. According to the studies of Follett managers should behave as coaches and facilitators –not as monitors and supervisors and the importance of direct inter communication between managers of different departments to make speedy decisions. She also promoted the concept of â€Å"cross functioning† which has been used in a great scale at present. Hawthorne effect is the discovery that a manager’s behaviour and leadership approach can affect the level of performance of employees. From this study emerged the concept of human relations movement. It is basically how the supervisors should be behaviourally trained to spice up worker’s motivation, cooperation and increase their productivity. Informal organization is one of the implications of Hawthorne effect. This is the system of behavioural rules and norms that come out in a group. The study of factors that have an impact on how individuals and groups react to in organizations has been identified as the organizational behaviour. Apart from these mentioned here the most significant approach was developed by Douglas McGregor. He supposed two different sets of assumptions which were named as Theory X and Theory Y. Management Science Theory This is a modern extension of Scientific Management Theory in this approach describes how precise quantitative techniques can be used in order to make the best use of organizational resources. Quantitative management emphasises on how arithmetic can be manipulated to achieve best practises in inventory and financial capital control. Operations management presents a set of techniques that can be utilized to improve production efficiency Total quality management focuses on the art of how the whole can be managed to achieve excellence. Management information systems provide the managers with adequate information about internal and external events of an organization to effective decision making. Organizational Environment Theory This is the set of conditions and forces that functions externally to the organization but affect a manger’s capability to acquire and utilize resources. This clearly stresses on how important it is to study the environment. The open systems theory and contingency theory developed in 1960 ascertains the importance of the importance of studying the environment. The Open –Systems View This is a system where external resources are acquired and converted into goods and services then sent back to customers for purchasing. And the cycle carries on. This system is considered as an open system. Organizations which use a closed system are likely to experience entropy, the tendency of a system to lose its ability to control itself and thus to dissolve and collapse. Contigency Theory It discloses that there is no best way to organize therefore characteristics of the environment affect an organization’s ability to obtain resources. Types of structures Above describes the differences between the structures. In conclusion managers in a Mechanistic structure can obtain inputs at a lower cost preferably in a stable environment and managers in an organic environment can react more quickly in a rapidly changing environment. These contributions constructed the foundation of modern management theories. References: New Era of Management Concepts and Applications 2nd Edition Richard L. Daft, Vanderbilt University Contemporary Management fifth edition Gareth R. Jones, Texas A M University Jennifer M. George, Rice University

Culture in the Police Force

Culture in the Police Force Culture is a way of life, different nations, different countries or even different families have their own cultures. There is one occupational culture inside the police force, that what we called Cop Culture. According to Reiner (2000), police occupational cultures can be defined as a kind of share values, beliefs, norms, working practices, and informal rules, police officers will use these cultures to justify their works in their world. In this essay, we will talk about the principal features and characteristics associated with cop culture, also we will further discuss the main recent critiques of the previous scholarly understandings of cop culture. Culture is the way of life which varies from place to place, or changes over period. It exists in many forms like, behaviors, attitude or norms, etc. Cop culture is an organizational culture within the police force, it is not the formal rules but still widely spread within the force. These informal rules and share values will not be published as written manuals. There will not have a ceremony to announce these rules, but when new recruits enter the system, during the recruitment and training period, they will be socialized and learn about the culture. New police officers are then engaged in following the informal rules as they are all assumed to achieve the same goal. With this unavoidable socialization, police and cop culture are always closely interdependent. Many studies always use cop culture as the key debate in contemporary policing, it is because public concerns that, police is the professionals in our society, their works involve danger and risk. They are paid to protect the public safety and prevent crime, so they should take these responsibilities. Public expect and demand police officers the highest standard of work, but they do not truly understand the complexity of police work. Working between this ambiguous gap, there is a need for police officers to work out a special way of life to sustain the whole system. Cop culture involves different underlying values, these may affect or guide the polices working behavior. It can be seen as the reference for police to understand more about the way of work and the policing style of its organization, or we may say it is a kind a learning behavior. As many criminologists mostly concern about how the cop-culture shapes the ways in which officers use their discretion? we can make use of the police culture to further understand and interpret how the police use the discretion power. (Westmarland, L, 2008) Discretion power takes an important role in the police role, police use this specific authorized power when they have to make decision for their operation. As we all know, it is impossible to implement the law fully, there still have differences between law in practice and law in theory. We cannot write down every single case in a rule book, and ask the police officers to follow them strictly. In this case, police need to make good use of the knowledge l earnt from the training school and experiences from the senior officers as references. Police have to face thousands of decision making process at their work, for example, whether to arrest or warn a careless driver. Discretion power provides them a wide range of methods to enforce the law correctly. In this case, cop-culture may affect their perception about the criminal behavior or the criminals. Finally, it may change and control the results or even the justice directly. To combine different scholars studies about Cop culture, they tried to list a numerous of features to characterize cop-culture. They are a sense of mission, cynicism/pessimism, machismo, suspiciousness, internal solidarity/social isolation and conservatism. Robert Reiner (2000: 111-114) strongly emphasized the central feature of cop culture is a sense of mission. Police have a strong sense to protect the public and the weak, as it is not only their job but their way of life. They have strong commitment to this valuable work. About the cynicism/pessimism, it dominated the personalities of police officers. Because their work makes them the exposure to dangerous conditions, they become mistrust to the public or even everyone. Machismo is a product of the masculine ethos of the force and the tension built up by the work (Jewkes, Y. Letherby, G., 2002 : 276), it is a very typical sketch in every police force. With a cult of masculinity and the strong and aggressive self- images, this has great influence power on their attitude and behaviors towards offenders, victims and crime. Moreover, Skolnick (1966) introduced other three main characteristics in making of cop culture, they are suspiciousness, internal solidarity linked with social isolation and conservatism. It is all started from the job nature of police, the work of police is closely related to danger and risk. With this nature, police firstly become more suspicious of everyone in the society, probably, they are trained to be suspicious as to stop the danger matters as soon as possible, suspicious manner thus lead to social isolation which includes isolation from families, friends or the mainstream of community. They may think that all the people except their colleagues do not understand their works. As internal solidarity is linked with social isolation, they will also be mutually reinforced. It is easily to understand that because of that external social isolation, they will become more rely on their working partners, they will feel that only police officers will know and support their works, and th us enhance their internal solidarity. Conservatism is related to the traditional image of police, as they are the authority figures which upholding strong legitimate powers in the society, their working style will be conservative too. They will not be easily affected by other norms, such as they should not have any sympathies towards any crime related parties. Also, conservatism makes the police organizations lack of incentive to change and reforms. All of above features are not written as formal rules but they are all known by any police officers. According to Skolnick (1966), police view themselves as the safeguards of society, they are working in danger and they are required to be suspicious. They need to use their authorities to enforce the law as to protect the society. Within this framework, Skolnick (1966) pointed out the police always face a dilemma that we are working under pressure to achieve results in the form of law enforcement, but we are restricted by the rule of law to enforce the law Also, as their work are closely watched by the public every day ( Newburn. T Reiner. R, 2007: 918), these give the police work greater pressures, and thus provide them an environment to develop a set of unique culture for dealing with their works. And public may see this culture as deviant but it has been accepted and justified as normal in the cop-culture. Some other studies (Wortley, R, K., 1992) also noted Racial prejudice as a feature of cop culture. It is shown that police are targeted a specific races as their policing target informally. They believe they are the authorized moral judges in the community, so they are allowed to do some prejudge before the formal due-process. The important point is that they usually focus on the minorities and develop a certain unfair or discriminative attitude to deal with them. You may ask in what ways the police officers share these cop culture, and does it really so long-lasting? According to Andrew Brown (1995:26), culture is a product of historical process. When years and years pass, this has become a set of identical working style within the organization. Experiences are accumulated day by day, and become the history today. The shared norms and values are easily spread between department and officers. However, many criminologists wrote to criticize the existence of cop-culture. Most of their studies focused on problem of races and gender discrimination, and it raised the public attention on police abuse of discretion power or even more serious problem like, miscarriage of justice. Different scholars had brought out their complaints about the cop-culture, and have advocated kind of reform to stop the spread and development of the cop-culture. Is that really so serious that we need to restrict this internal culture within the police organization? Some recent scholars like, Chan (1996) and Waddington (2004) started to look cop-culture with a different angles and paint a new picture for it. They challenged the previous scholars about their conception of the cop-culture. According to Police (canteen) sub-culture: an appreciation of Waddington, P.A.J (2004), he tried to offer us an alternative view of cop culture which opposed the previous scholars understanding and criticisms about cop-culture. Waddington(2004) stated that it is only a canteen culture whereas we can treat it as an oral phenomenon, he emphasized the differences between talk and action( Waddington, 2004 : 364), we do not need to pay too much attention on their private talks in such private backstage like canteens where far away from public. He argued that it is only an act of storytelling. In some case is that senior officers make use of the channel to share their war stories with some exaggerate manners. However, we should believe the professional training as those police officers have abilities to determine its reality and decide whether to take it as reference or not. In addition, it can be a positive thing which provides them opportunity to express their emotions as they have already suffered from high pressure on their daily work. This police occupational culture also provides them an idea of spirit, it fosters a strong sense of cohesion between officers and thus enhances their working attitude. Officers believe that there is a mutual understanding which makes them find their own values within the organization and community. Waddington (2004: 375) also described this canteen culture is simply developed by a condition of talking a good fight , officers just want to glorify themselves, it is also related to their personalities of machismo. The process of glorification can definitely increase their self-esteem which makes them work harder and more efficient as to achieve the same goal and to maintain their internal working spirit. Moreover, Waddington, P.A.J. (2004) argued that cop culture is just an in-group culture, it is unnecessary to link this with the problem of race or gender discrimination. Also, those characteristics are just the way of police lives, we should not comment it as negative or even to reform their way of lives. It is meaningless to concern about the talk aspect, or we should pay more attention on their action indeed. Another key critique about cop-culture is proposed by Janet Chan (1996) recently. She made 4 main criticisms about the previous conceptions about cop-culture and its abilities to explain cop-culture. Firstly, Reiner (1992: 109) stated that the cop culture is not monolithic, universal nor changing. But Chan (1996) argued that the previous definitions are too simple and not universal. She concerns the failure of existing definitions of police culture to account for internal differentiation and jurisdictional differences. (Chan, 1996: 111) She stated that there must be different level of police sub-cultures inside the organization, but the previous scholars mostly just focus on the culture of street level, but they neglected the culture of management level. She criticized that the previous scholars could not provide a full definition and comprehensive conditions of cop-culture. Secondly, Chan (1996) argued that police officers are not like what Reiner (1992: 109) described as passive and being cultural dopes She also criticized Reiner did not make an detailed explanation about socialization of police officers. Every police officer has their own choice to decide whether absorb and transform the values, they will not follow those informal rules blindly. They can separate which are hero stories and which are real works and real world. Thirdly, Chan (1996: 112) proposed that A theory of police culture must, therefore, situate culture in the political and social context of policing. As the police is closely related to the society, it is impossible to extremely separated them. However, Chan (1996) found that the previous scholars failed to do this. No matter the street level and management level officers also need to respond to the public reaction. About those problems of injustice or corruption, police organization still have to react to these scandals. The final criticism is closely linked with the previous criticisms, according to Chan (1996:112), an all-powerful, homogeneous and deterministic conception of the police culture insulated from the external environment leaves little scope for a cultural change. She stated that the previous scholars were failed to examine the scope and possibilities for changing this cop-culture. Almost thirty years ago, people are started to pay attention on the police occupational culture which we named as cop culture nowadays. Police take an important role in our society, a minimal difference between their behaviors may result very differently. Most of the studies are focus on the street cop culture, especially those patrol officers. Cop culture is the shared values and norms within the police officers, although this culture will be varies from place to place, there are still some standard features in general. However, many scholars always defined cop culture as something negative and destructive to society. After a period of time, some current scholars argued that those previous criticisms about cop culture may not be correct in all cases, and made a newly and clear way for us to understand the concept about cop culture.